Author: Saim Khalid

A classical mechanical system is characterized by a set of mechanical state variables: velocity, elevation in a gravitational field, electrical charges, and so forth. If these variables are given and the external fields are known, the system is fully specified and its behavior at any instant of time, past or future, can be calculated. Thermodynamic…

Rackett Equation A useful and accurate method for the calculation of liquid molar volumes at saturation is the Rackett equation. In its modified form, it gives the molar volume of saturated liquid as where VL is the molar volume at saturation, Tc is the critical temperature, Pc is the critical pressure, Tr = T/Tc is the reduced temperature and ZR is a parameter specific to the…

As a state property, the molar (or specific) volume can be determined once as a function of pressure and temperature, and tabulated for future use. Tabulations have been compiled for a large number of pure fluids. In very common use are the steam tables, which contain tabulations of the properties of water. Steam is a…

The strength of molecular interactions is determined by the mean intermolecular distance and the property that most directly reflects this distance is molar density, or its reciprocal, molar volume. The approximate relationship between molar volume and mean intermolecular distance is given by (see Example 1.1), where NA is Avogadro’s number. The packing density of molecules in given volume…

Historically, a large part of thermodynamics was developed before the emergence of atomic and molecular theories of matter. This part has come to be known as classical thermodynamics and makes no reference to molecular concepts. It is based on two basic principles (“laws”) and produces a rigorous mathematical formalism that provides exact relationships between properties and forms…

All macroscopic behavior of matter is the result of phenomena that take place at the microscopic level and arise from force interactions among molecules. Molecules exert a variety of forces: direct electrostatic forces between ions or permanent dipoles; induction forces between a permanent dipole and an induced dipole; forces of attraction between nonpolar molecules, known as…

System The system is the part of the physical world that is the object of a thermodynamic calculation. It may be a fixed amount of material inside a tank, a gas compressor with the associated inlet and outlet streams, or an entire chemical plant. Once the system is defined, anything that lies outside the system boundaries belongs…

All the effects of nature are only the mathematical consequences of a small number of immutable laws. P.-S. LaPlace Maxwell’s relations make it clear that changes in any one variable can be represented as changes in some other pair of variables. In chemical processes, we are often concerned with the changes of enthalpy and entropy…

I am more than ever an admirer of van der Waals. Lord Rayleigh (1891) From Chapter 6, it is obvious that we can calculate changes in U, S, H, A, and G by knowing changes in any two variables from the set {P–V–T} plus CP or CV. This chapter introduces the various ways available for quantitative prediction of the P-V-T properties we desire in a…

Forming an intermediate state between liquids, in which we assume no external pressure, and gases, in which we omit molecular forces, we have the state in which both terms occur. As a matter of fact, we shall see further on, that this is the only state which occurs in nature. van der Waals (1873, ch2)…