Category: Heart Failure

1. Introduction Heart failure (HF) remains a global health crisis, affecting over 64 million people worldwide, with high rates of hospitalization, disability, and premature mortality. Despite advances in guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT) — including ACE inhibitors, ARBs, ARNIs, beta-blockers, MRAs, and SGLT2 inhibitors — many patients continue to experience worsening symptoms, poor quality of life,…

Heart failure (HF) is one of the most pressing global health challenges, affecting more than 64 million people worldwide. Despite advances in pharmacotherapy—including angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors (ARNIs), mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs), and beta-blockers—mortality and hospitalization rates remain unacceptably high. In the past decade, sodium–glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) continues to pose a major global health challenge, affecting an estimated 64 million people worldwide. Despite advances in drug therapy, patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) still face high rates of morbidity and mortality. For decades, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors), angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), and beta-blockers were…

1. Introduction Heart failure (HF) is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite major advances in pharmacological and device therapies, HF continues to burden patients and healthcare systems. Among the therapeutic agents that have revolutionized the management of HF are mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs). MRAs, including spironolactone and eplerenone, are cornerstone…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is one of the most pressing global health concerns, affecting more than 64 million people worldwide. Despite significant advances in therapy, it remains associated with high morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. Among the pharmacological treatments developed, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) have been pivotal in improving…

Heart failure (HF) is a major public health challenge worldwide, affecting millions of people and carrying significant morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. Accurate diagnosis, assessment of severity, and evaluation of underlying mechanisms are crucial for optimizing patient management. Imaging plays a central role in the evaluation of HF, providing insights into cardiac structure, function, hemodynamics,…

Heart failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome characterized by the heart’s inability to pump sufficient blood to meet the body’s metabolic demands or to do so only at the expense of elevated filling pressures. It is not a single disease but rather the final common pathway of a wide range of cardiovascular disorders such as…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is a progressive clinical syndrome characterized by impaired ability of the heart to pump or fill with blood, leading to symptoms such as dyspnea, fatigue, and fluid retention. It is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, imposing a substantial economic and social burden. A major challenge in…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is a syndrome, not a single disease, that arises when the heart cannot pump blood efficiently enough to meet the body’s metabolic demands, or when it can do so only at abnormally elevated filling pressures. Despite diverse etiologies—such as ischemic heart disease, hypertension, valvular disorders, or cardiomyopathies—heart failure tends to manifest…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is not a single disease but a complex clinical syndrome that arises from a wide range of structural and functional cardiac abnormalities. It represents the final common pathway of multiple cardiovascular insults that impair the heart’s ability to maintain adequate circulation. Understanding the causes and risk factors of heart failure is…