Author: Saim Khalid

The universe communicates through light. From distant galaxies to glowing neon signs, everything that emits or absorbs light carries hidden information encoded in patterns known as spectral lines. These lines reveal the identity of elements, the nature of stars, the structure of atoms, and the behavior of matter under different conditions. Spectral lines are more…

Understanding how electrons absorb and release energy is key to explaining some of the most beautiful and fundamental phenomena in nature—glowing gases, fireworks, neon signs, lasers, auroras, stars, and even the color of everyday objects. At the center of all these phenomena is a process called electron relaxation and photon emission. Though the movement of…

Introduction One of the most fascinating aspects of modern physics is the behavior of electrons inside atoms. Electrons are tiny, negatively charged particles that occupy regions of space around an atom’s nucleus. Their movements, transitions, and interactions with energy lie at the heart of chemistry, electricity, and quantum mechanics. Among their many remarkable behaviors, one…

In the world of atomic physics and quantum mechanics, one of the most fascinating and foundational concepts is the idea of the excited state. Electrons do not remain fixed or motionless within atoms. Instead, they behave according to the rules of quantum theory, occupying specific energy levels and transitioning between these levels under the influence…

The universe is vast, stretching across billions of light-years and containing galaxies, stars, and planets beyond counting. Yet, hidden beneath every physical structure lies a world so small that it defies ordinary imagination—a world composed of particles that form the fundamental foundation of matter. Among these particles, the electron holds a particularly special place. With…

Electrons, with their incredibly small mass of 9.109 × 10⁻³¹ kilograms, may seem insignificant at first glance, yet they are among the most influential particles in the universe. In fact, the vast majority of an atom’s chemical behavior—its reactivity, bonding capability, interaction with light, and role in forming complex structures—is governed not by the nucleus…

Introduction Physics, as a discipline, seeks to understand the fundamental principles that govern the universe. At the heart of these principles are the building blocks of matter: subatomic particles. Among these, the electron stands out as one of the most significant and fascinating. Though extraordinarily small—with a mass of just 9.109 × 10⁻³¹ kilograms—the electron…

The mass of an electron is one of the most fundamental constants in physics, expressed precisely as 9.109 × 10⁻³¹ kilograms. This value is astonishingly small—so small that, in practical atomic mass calculations, it is often considered negligible. Yet despite its tiny magnitude, the electron’s mass holds profound significance in the structure of matter, the…

Introduction Atomic structure forms the foundational framework of modern chemistry and physics. Every material object—everything we see, touch, and interact with—is composed of atoms, the fundamental units of matter. Despite their incredibly small size, atoms possess a rich internal structure made up of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each component contributes to an atom’s…

When we talk about the building blocks of matter, we usually mention atoms—tiny structures that form everything from stars to human beings. Yet, inside every atom exist even smaller particles: electrons, protons, and neutrons. Among these three, one stands out because of its astonishingly small mass—the electron. With a mass of 9.109 × 10⁻³¹ kilograms,…