Author: Saim Khalid

Introduction Cardiac arrhythmias represent a broad spectrum of disorders characterized by abnormal electrical activity in the heart. Their pathogenesis may involve abnormalities in impulse formation (automaticity), impulse conduction, or both. Pharmacological interventions have long been a cornerstone of arrhythmia management, and among the earliest classes of antiarrhythmic drugs were the sodium channel blockers (Class I…

Introduction Cardiovascular diseases remain the foremost cause of death worldwide, responsible for nearly one-third of all global mortality. Within this spectrum, heart failure (HF) and ischemic heart disease (IHD) represent the two most clinically significant entities. Heart failure is a complex syndrome arising from the heart’s inability to pump sufficient blood to meet metabolic demands,…

Introduction The rhythmic contraction of the human heart depends on the precise generation and propagation of electrical impulses across cardiac tissues. Any disturbance in impulse formation, conduction, or both can lead to arrhythmias, ranging from benign premature beats to potentially fatal conditions such as ventricular fibrillation or sustained ventricular tachycardia. Pharmacological management of arrhythmias has…

Introduction Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of global morbidity and mortality, with millions of patients requiring lifelong treatment. Unlike many acute illnesses, cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension, ischemic heart disease, arrhythmias, and heart failure are chronic conditions demanding long-term, multi-drug therapy. While pharmacotherapy has revolutionized outcomes—extending life expectancy and improving quality of life—it…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) and ischemic heart disease (IHD) remain the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite advances in interventional cardiology and surgical strategies, pharmacological management continues to be the cornerstone of therapy for both conditions. Modern drug therapy for HF and IHD is not limited to symptom control—it is aimed at modifying…

Introduction Cardiac arrhythmias are disturbances in the normal rhythm of the heart, ranging from benign premature beats to life-threatening ventricular fibrillation. These disorders occur due to abnormalities in impulse formation, impulse conduction, or a combination of both. While non-pharmacological interventions such as catheter ablation, implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs), and pacemakers have revolutionized arrhythmia management, antiarrhythmic drugs…

1. Introduction to Cardiac Pharmacology: Principles and Clinical Relevance Cardiac pharmacology is a specialized branch of pharmacology that studies drugs used to prevent, treat, and manage cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) such as hypertension, arrhythmias, ischemic heart disease, heart failure, and thromboembolic disorders. Since cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, cardiac pharmacology…

Introduction Cardiomyopathies are a diverse group of heart muscle diseases that may lead to heart failure, arrhythmias, thromboembolic complications, and sudden cardiac death. Among them, genetic cardiomyopathies—including hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM), and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM)—are increasingly recognized as major contributors to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Historically, the treatment of cardiomyopathies…

Introduction For decades, cardiomyopathies and channelopathies were considered two distinct categories of inherited heart disease. However, advances in molecular genetics and high-throughput sequencing technologies have blurred these boundaries. Increasingly, the same gene mutation has been found to cause either a cardiomyopathy, a channelopathy, or even both, depending on genetic modifiers, environmental triggers, and disease stage.…

Introduction Cardiomyopathies represent a diverse group of myocardial disorders characterized by structural and functional abnormalities of the heart muscle. They are a leading cause of heart failure, arrhythmias, and sudden cardiac death (SCD), particularly in younger populations. Among the various factors implicated in their pathogenesis, mutations in sarcomere proteins have emerged as a central determinant,…