Author: Saim Khalid

Heart failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome characterized by the heart’s inability to pump sufficient blood to meet the body’s metabolic demands or to do so only at the expense of elevated filling pressures. It is not a single disease but rather the final common pathway of a wide range of cardiovascular disorders such as…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is a progressive clinical syndrome characterized by impaired ability of the heart to pump or fill with blood, leading to symptoms such as dyspnea, fatigue, and fluid retention. It is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, imposing a substantial economic and social burden. A major challenge in…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is a syndrome, not a single disease, that arises when the heart cannot pump blood efficiently enough to meet the body’s metabolic demands, or when it can do so only at abnormally elevated filling pressures. Despite diverse etiologies—such as ischemic heart disease, hypertension, valvular disorders, or cardiomyopathies—heart failure tends to manifest…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is not a single disease but a complex clinical syndrome that arises from a wide range of structural and functional cardiac abnormalities. It represents the final common pathway of multiple cardiovascular insults that impair the heart’s ability to maintain adequate circulation. Understanding the causes and risk factors of heart failure is…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome characterized by the heart’s inability to pump blood effectively to meet the body’s metabolic demands. It represents a final common pathway of various cardiovascular diseases including coronary artery disease (CAD), hypertension, valvular disorders, and cardiomyopathies. Traditionally, heart failure was regarded as a single entity, but advances…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome resulting from the heart’s inability to pump sufficient blood to meet the body’s metabolic demands or to do so only at elevated filling pressures. It is not a single disease but the final common pathway of multiple cardiovascular conditions, including ischemic heart disease, hypertension, valvular disorders,…

1. Definition of Heart Failure Heart failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome characterized by the heart’s inability to pump blood adequately to meet the body’s metabolic demands or to do so only at elevated filling pressures. It results from structural or functional impairment of ventricular filling or ejection of blood, leading to symptoms such as…

Introduction Ischemic Heart Disease (IHD), also referred to as Coronary Artery Disease (CAD), remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. It arises due to an imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and demand, most commonly from atherosclerotic narrowing of coronary arteries. While revascularization strategies such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass…

Introduction Ischemic heart disease (IHD), also known as coronary artery disease (CAD), remains one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Early and accurate diagnosis is critical to prevent complications such as myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, and heart failure. While invasive coronary angiography is considered the gold standard for evaluating coronary artery stenosis, it…

Ischemic Heart Disease (IHD), also known as coronary artery disease (CAD), remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. While revascularization strategies such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) play an essential role, medical therapy remains the cornerstone of both symptom control and prognosis improvement. The primary goals of…