Author: Saim Khalid

Introduction Aortic regurgitation (AR), also called aortic insufficiency, is a valvular heart disease in which the aortic valve fails to close completely during diastole, allowing blood to leak backward from the aorta into the left ventricle (LV). This abnormality leads to volume overload of the LV, progressive dilation, and eventually systolic heart failure if untreated.…

1. Introduction Aortic stenosis (AS) is one of the most common and clinically significant forms of valvular heart disease, particularly in aging populations. Characterized by narrowing of the aortic valve orifice, it results in obstructed blood flow from the left ventricle (LV) to the aorta, leading to progressive pressure overload, left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), and…

Valvular heart disease (VHD) is a major contributor to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality worldwide. It encompasses structural or functional abnormalities of one or more of the cardiac valves—aortic, mitral, tricuspid, or pulmonary—that impair the heart’s ability to maintain unidirectional blood flow. Although congenital defects exist, most clinically relevant VHD in adults arises from degenerative changes,…

1. Definition and Epidemiology 1.1 What is Valvular Heart Disease? Valvular heart disease (VHD) refers to any structural or functional abnormality of one or more of the four cardiac valves—aortic, mitral, tricuspid, and pulmonary—that disrupts the normal unidirectional flow of blood through the heart. The abnormality may be: Valvular dysfunction can cause pressure overload, volume…

1. Introduction Heart failure (HF) remains a global health crisis, affecting over 64 million people worldwide, with high rates of hospitalization, disability, and premature mortality. Despite advances in guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT) — including ACE inhibitors, ARBs, ARNIs, beta-blockers, MRAs, and SGLT2 inhibitors — many patients continue to experience worsening symptoms, poor quality of life,…

Heart failure (HF) is one of the most pressing global health challenges, affecting more than 64 million people worldwide. Despite advances in pharmacotherapy—including angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors (ARNIs), mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs), and beta-blockers—mortality and hospitalization rates remain unacceptably high. In the past decade, sodium–glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) continues to pose a major global health challenge, affecting an estimated 64 million people worldwide. Despite advances in drug therapy, patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) still face high rates of morbidity and mortality. For decades, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors), angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), and beta-blockers were…

1. Introduction Heart failure (HF) is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite major advances in pharmacological and device therapies, HF continues to burden patients and healthcare systems. Among the therapeutic agents that have revolutionized the management of HF are mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs). MRAs, including spironolactone and eplerenone, are cornerstone…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is one of the most pressing global health concerns, affecting more than 64 million people worldwide. Despite significant advances in therapy, it remains associated with high morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. Among the pharmacological treatments developed, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) have been pivotal in improving…

Heart failure (HF) is a major public health challenge worldwide, affecting millions of people and carrying significant morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. Accurate diagnosis, assessment of severity, and evaluation of underlying mechanisms are crucial for optimizing patient management. Imaging plays a central role in the evaluation of HF, providing insights into cardiac structure, function, hemodynamics,…