Category: Cardiac Pharmacology

Introduction Heart failure (HF) represents one of the most significant public health challenges of the modern era, affecting more than 64 million individuals globally. Despite major advances in device therapy, revascularization, and pharmacology, morbidity and mortality from heart failure remain unacceptably high. For decades, the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) were the…

Pharmacotherapy of Myocardial Introduction Myocardial ischemia is a pathological state that arises when the blood supply to the heart muscle is insufficient to meet its metabolic demands. The imbalance between oxygen supply and demand leads to cellular hypoxia, anaerobic metabolism, reduced contractility, and—if prolonged—irreversible myocardial injury. Clinically, ischemia manifests most often as angina pectoris, and…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is not a single disease but a clinical syndrome that arises when the heart is unable to pump blood adequately to meet the body’s metabolic demands or can do so only at elevated filling pressures. It represents the end stage of multiple cardiovascular disorders including ischemic heart disease, hypertension, valvular disorders,…

Introduction Cardiac disease, particularly heart failure, hypertension, and ischemic cardiomyopathy, remains a leading cause of mortality worldwide. A common thread among these conditions is the overactivation of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS), which promotes vasoconstriction, fluid retention, sympathetic activation, and structural remodeling of the myocardium. Among the most important pharmacological breakthroughs in cardiovascular medicine has been…

Introduction The human heart is an exquisitely regulated organ, orchestrating electrical impulses that drive coordinated contraction and relaxation to sustain life. These impulses are governed by finely tuned interactions between ion channels, transporters, and intracellular signaling pathways. Disturbances in this delicate system often lead to arrhythmias—disorders of rhythm and conduction—that pose significant morbidity and mortality…

Introduction Cardiac arrhythmias represent a broad spectrum of disorders characterized by abnormal electrical activity in the heart. Their pathogenesis may involve abnormalities in impulse formation (automaticity), impulse conduction, or both. Pharmacological interventions have long been a cornerstone of arrhythmia management, and among the earliest classes of antiarrhythmic drugs were the sodium channel blockers (Class I…

Introduction Cardiovascular diseases remain the foremost cause of death worldwide, responsible for nearly one-third of all global mortality. Within this spectrum, heart failure (HF) and ischemic heart disease (IHD) represent the two most clinically significant entities. Heart failure is a complex syndrome arising from the heart’s inability to pump sufficient blood to meet metabolic demands,…

Introduction The rhythmic contraction of the human heart depends on the precise generation and propagation of electrical impulses across cardiac tissues. Any disturbance in impulse formation, conduction, or both can lead to arrhythmias, ranging from benign premature beats to potentially fatal conditions such as ventricular fibrillation or sustained ventricular tachycardia. Pharmacological management of arrhythmias has…

Introduction Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of global morbidity and mortality, with millions of patients requiring lifelong treatment. Unlike many acute illnesses, cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension, ischemic heart disease, arrhythmias, and heart failure are chronic conditions demanding long-term, multi-drug therapy. While pharmacotherapy has revolutionized outcomes—extending life expectancy and improving quality of life—it…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) and ischemic heart disease (IHD) remain the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite advances in interventional cardiology and surgical strategies, pharmacological management continues to be the cornerstone of therapy for both conditions. Modern drug therapy for HF and IHD is not limited to symptom control—it is aimed at modifying…