Category: Cardiac Pathophysiology

Introduction Myocardial infarction (MI), commonly referred to as a heart attack, is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. It results from prolonged ischemia, usually due to coronary artery occlusion, leading to irreversible cardiomyocyte death. While early reperfusion therapies such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and thrombolysis have improved survival, a significant…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is one of the most pressing health concerns worldwide, representing the final common pathway of multiple cardiovascular diseases. It is characterized by the heart’s inability to pump sufficient blood to meet the body’s metabolic demands. While structural and hemodynamic alterations in the heart are well recognized, a deeper molecular pathology has…

Introduction For decades, heart failure was often equated with a weakened, poorly contracting heart—the image of a dilated left ventricle struggling to pump blood forward. While systolic dysfunction certainly represents one major form of heart failure, research over the last three decades has revealed another equally important, but often overlooked, player: diastolic dysfunction. Diastolic dysfunction…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is not a single disease but a complex clinical syndrome resulting from impaired cardiac structure or function. It is one of the leading causes of hospitalization and mortality worldwide, particularly among older adults. Traditionally, heart failure was seen as a condition of poor pump function, where the heart could not eject…

Introduction Ischemia is one of the most critical stressors that cells and tissues encounter. Defined as an insufficient blood supply to meet tissue metabolic demands, ischemia leads to a cascade of events affecting oxygen delivery, energy metabolism, ion balance, and ultimately, cell survival. Nowhere is this more important than in the heart and brain, where…

Introduction The heart is a highly metabolic organ, continuously relying on a steady supply of oxygen and nutrients delivered through coronary blood flow. When this blood supply is obstructed—whether by coronary artery disease, thrombosis, or acute myocardial infarction—the heart experiences ischemia. Ischemia is the deprivation of oxygen and nutrients, leading to impaired cellular metabolism, energy…

Introduction Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of death worldwide, and at the center of this epidemic lies myocardial ischemia—a condition where the supply of oxygenated blood to the heart muscle falls short of its demand. At its mildest, ischemia can cause angina pectoris, a temporary chest discomfort. At its most severe, it can culminate…

Introduction The human heart adapts continuously to internal and external stressors. When confronted with increased workload, whether from hypertension, valvular disease, ischemia, or genetic factors, the myocardium responds with hypertrophy—an increase in cardiomyocyte size and overall heart mass. While hypertrophy can be initially compensatory, chronic or maladaptive hypertrophy leads to cardiac dysfunction, arrhythmias, and heart…

Introduction The heart is an exquisitely structured organ designed for efficiency, adaptability, and resilience. However, under persistent stress—such as hypertension, myocardial infarction, or pressure overload—it undergoes a process known as cardiac remodeling. Remodeling encompasses structural, functional, cellular, and molecular changes in the myocardium. Among these alterations, fibrosis stands out as one of the most significant…

Introduction The human heart is not a static organ—it is dynamic, adaptive, and highly responsive to the stresses placed upon it. When faced with injury, pressure overload, or metabolic disturbances, the heart undergoes a process called cardiac remodeling. This term refers to a broad set of structural, molecular, and functional changes that alter the size,…