Category: Immunology

Introduction to Modern Immunology Immunology is the branch of biology and medicine that studies the immune system, its functions, and its responses to pathogens, foreign molecules, and abnormal cells. Over the past few decades, advances in molecular biology, genetics, and biotechnology have revolutionized our understanding of the immune system, leading to innovative therapies, vaccines, and…

Introduction The immune system is the body’s defense mechanism against pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and other foreign invaders. It distinguishes between “self” and “non-self,” targeting harmful agents while preserving the body’s own tissues. However, when this balance is disrupted, it can lead to immune system disorders, including autoimmunity and immunodeficiency. Autoimmune diseases arise when…

IntroductionVaccines are one of the most significant medical advancements in human history, providing protection against infectious diseases and reducing global mortality. Vaccination works by stimulating the adaptive immune system without causing the disease itself, allowing the body to recognize, respond to, and remember pathogens. This immunological memory enables the immune system to respond rapidly and…

The immune system is a highly sophisticated defense network that protects the body from a wide variety of infectious agents, including bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi. The nature of the immune response varies depending on the type of pathogen, the site of infection, and the stage of the immune response. Effective immunity requires a coordinated…

Introduction to Cytokines Cytokines are small, soluble proteins or glycoproteins secreted by immune and non-immune cells to regulate the immune system. They act as signaling molecules that mediate communication between cells and coordinate immune responses. Cytokines play a central role in both innate and adaptive immunity, orchestrating the recruitment, activation, proliferation, and differentiation of immune…

Introduction to the Immune System The immune system is the body’s defense mechanism against foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and toxins. Its ability to distinguish between self and non-self is critical for maintaining health. Central to this defense system are antigens and antibodies, which play complementary roles in identifying and neutralizing threats. Antigens…

Introduction Adaptive immunity, also called acquired immunity, is a sophisticated defense mechanism that allows the body to recognize, target, and remember specific pathogens. Unlike innate immunity, which provides immediate but nonspecific defense, adaptive immunity is slower to respond initially but offers highly specific and long-lasting protection. It forms the basis for vaccination and immunological memory,…

IntroductionInnate immunity is the first line of defense in the body, providing rapid and broad protection against pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Unlike adaptive immunity, which is highly specific and involves memory, innate immunity is non-specific and acts immediately upon pathogen invasion. It comprises physical and chemical barriers, cellular defenses, and an…

The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and molecules that work together to protect the body from infections, pathogens, and foreign substances. It is a highly organized system capable of recognizing millions of distinct antigens and mounting appropriate responses to eliminate or neutralize threats. The immune system not only defends against infectious…

What is Immunology? Immunology is the scientific study of the immune system and its functions in protecting organisms from harmful pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It investigates how the body detects foreign substances, mounts defenses, and maintains homeostasis. Immunology also examines how the immune system develops memory to recognize and respond more effectively…