Author: Saim Khalid

Introduction Lipid metabolism is a cornerstone of cardiovascular physiology. Fats and lipoproteins not only serve as energy reservoirs but also play essential roles in cell membrane structure, steroid hormone synthesis, and signaling pathways. However, when lipid metabolism is disturbed, it can drive atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease—the leading cause of mortality worldwide. One of the most…

Introduction Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a genetic lipid disorder characterized by markedly elevated plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels from birth, leading to premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Unlike polygenic or lifestyle-driven hypercholesterolemia, FH is a monogenic disorder, most commonly caused by mutations in one of three genes: Together, mutations in these genes impair clearance…

Introduction Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality across the globe, with elevated cholesterol being a well-established risk factor. While diet, lifestyle, and environmental influences play major roles in hypercholesterolemia, genetics can also profoundly shape lipid metabolism. Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH) is one such example—a hereditary disorder that leads to extremely high levels…

Introduction Myocardial infarction (MI), commonly referred to as a heart attack, is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. It results from prolonged ischemia, usually due to coronary artery occlusion, leading to irreversible cardiomyocyte death. While early reperfusion therapies such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and thrombolysis have improved survival, a significant…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is one of the most pressing health concerns worldwide, representing the final common pathway of multiple cardiovascular diseases. It is characterized by the heart’s inability to pump sufficient blood to meet the body’s metabolic demands. While structural and hemodynamic alterations in the heart are well recognized, a deeper molecular pathology has…

Introduction For decades, heart failure was often equated with a weakened, poorly contracting heart—the image of a dilated left ventricle struggling to pump blood forward. While systolic dysfunction certainly represents one major form of heart failure, research over the last three decades has revealed another equally important, but often overlooked, player: diastolic dysfunction. Diastolic dysfunction…

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is not a single disease but a complex clinical syndrome resulting from impaired cardiac structure or function. It is one of the leading causes of hospitalization and mortality worldwide, particularly among older adults. Traditionally, heart failure was seen as a condition of poor pump function, where the heart could not eject…

Introduction Ischemia is one of the most critical stressors that cells and tissues encounter. Defined as an insufficient blood supply to meet tissue metabolic demands, ischemia leads to a cascade of events affecting oxygen delivery, energy metabolism, ion balance, and ultimately, cell survival. Nowhere is this more important than in the heart and brain, where…

Introduction The heart is a highly metabolic organ, continuously relying on a steady supply of oxygen and nutrients delivered through coronary blood flow. When this blood supply is obstructed—whether by coronary artery disease, thrombosis, or acute myocardial infarction—the heart experiences ischemia. Ischemia is the deprivation of oxygen and nutrients, leading to impaired cellular metabolism, energy…

Introduction Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of death worldwide, and at the center of this epidemic lies myocardial ischemia—a condition where the supply of oxygenated blood to the heart muscle falls short of its demand. At its mildest, ischemia can cause angina pectoris, a temporary chest discomfort. At its most severe, it can culminate…